New Testament And Homer

Hebrew and Greek attitudes toward killing are similar, but once religion is factored in a remarkable difference is revealed. Early Hebrew citizens were murderous people by nature, much like the Greeks, but had God looking down on them saying to them that killing was wrong. Greek citizens would engage in war and human sacrifices with the gods on their side, and even sometimes the gods would take part in the murdering. The Greek way of life was murderous due to their strong urge to be revengeful, whereas the Hebrews murdered to keep the faith. In the text of The Odyssey and the Holy Bible killing is undeniably abundant with citizens killing, God killing, and sometimes the two killing in cahoots. The Holy Bible contains many instances of killing. The one that most everyone is familiar with is, Exodus 20:13, in the Ten Commandments of God stating, â€Å"You shall not murder. † Later in the Bible, God states what will happen to you if you disobey him, â€Å"The Lord will send you cursing, confusion, and rebuke in all that you set your hand to do, until you are destroyed and until you perish quickly, because of the wickedness of your doings in which you have forsaken Me† (Deuteronomy 28:20). With these to teachings from God, one would think there would be no killing going on and if you did kill you would be punished severely. This however, is not the case. In Genesis, Cain murders his own brother, Abel, out of jealousy. God sees this and is angry that Cain didn’t follow his rules, consequently banishing him and desecrating his body with a mark (The Holy Bible, Genesis 4). In some instances God actually commands killing. In Genesis, God became angry with the people so he kills them all with a flood, sparing only what He put on Noah’s Ark (Holy Bible, Genesis 6-8). God also asks Abraham to sacrifice his own son. Abraham is ready to prove his faith to God and murder, but fortunately God does not make him (Holy Bible, Genesis 22:8-13). When the people worship a golden calf in Baal, God becomes angry because you are not suppose to worship figures or anything other than God, and took command over the people. God makes the men take their swords and slay over three thousand of their brothers and sons (Holy Bible, Exodus 32:27-29). God also kills all of Egypt’s first born when he establishes Passover. During the first Passover, all of the people who do not obey God’s detailed procedure for Passover are visited and murdered by an angel of death. After God makes the Egyptians hearts hard and then weak, the people are able to leave, but are followed by the Pharaoh’s men. God separates the Red Sea for the Hebrews, but once the Egyptian soldiers enter the parting, God fills the waters back up and drowns all the men (Holy Bible, Exodus 12:29-30). All of the killings are influenced by Gods determination to have the people faithful to his religion. God leads the people through Moses and performs various acts to win the faith of the people. He does this by putting death on the door of the Hebrews and then saving the Hebrews by not killing them, therefore winning their faith by making them acknowledge his existence. God commands that people obey him or pay the consequence. This is a threat to the people on disobedience for Gods laws. If you murder you have desecrated Gods will, and punishment will come, and it will come in the greatest way possible. Early Greek society is full of warfare and dedication to the gods. The citizens of their great cities take pride in the glory of their warriors and the proud armies that fight so hard to conquer and plunder their enemies. As they are busy killing in war, they are also dedicated to their gods. Sacrificing humans to the gods is not an uncommon occurrence. The gods also play active roles in the Greeks killing. The gods sit above on Mt. Olympus and watch the many people come in conflict with each other, sometimes taking part in how the divine game is played out. The way the gods interact reminds me as if they are watching a daytime soap opera, interfering with the actions of the actors. In Homer’s The Odyssey, Odysseus, a powerful Greek warrior, is glorified in his adventures to Troy. His kills are great and in many numbers. Odysseus is described as a hero and the â€Å"raider of cities. † On Odysseus’s twenty-year quest the gods, mainly Athena, lead him. In the beginning the gods interfere when Poseidon wants to kill Odysseus, but Zeus refrains him from doing so. As Odysseus wanders his way home, he contemplates self-restraint and the value of lives. On part of his journey, Odysseus travels a dangerous path at one point risking his whole crew, which he has lost numerous times. He must decide between one path that will kill only a few and is difficult, or on a simpler path that can kill all of his crew. He realizes the importance of the lives and chooses the less harmful one. Perhaps the greatest and most glorified of Odysseus’s killings is when he returns home to kill all of the suitors pursuing his wife. Greeks killed out of revenge quite often. This created a giant, perpetual cycle of killing that left many angry. As Odysseus is murdering in great numbers at his home he is proud. He believes he is doing justice when he hangs prostitutes dead by a rope and dismembers a goat herder. The vengeful Odysseus is described as a proud fisherman with all his kills. â€Å"Odysseus scanned his house to see if any man still skulked alive, still hoped to avoid black death. But he found them one and all in blood and dust? great hauls of them down and out like fish that fishermen drag from the churning gray surf in looped and coiling nets and fling ashore on a sweeping hook of beach-some noble catch? orpse covering corpse? †(Odyssey, lines 406-414). The pride that Odysseus instills from his murderous ways is apparent. The Gods to do not threaten a punishment on Odysseus. The only threat that is to Odysseus is the families of the suitors who are angry. The main motivation for the killings is families and citizens feuding and avenging past killings. Fortunately, at the end of the Odyssey, the Gods cast a fog in the memories of the people so they will forget their anger towards each other. As the Hebrews kill, God and his threat for them to behave forever accompanied them. However, God’s punishment is not always apparent, for the most part it is. As the Greeks kill they are profitful and in almost no threat to the Gods. In Hebrew culture murder was used by God to help keep order and to acquire his people freedom. The Greeks killed to please the Gods and to please their state, neither of these are a value in Hebrew life. Although Hebrews and Greeks killed a lot with little thought towards it, Hebrew culture was plagued with God’s guilt over you, while in Greek culture you could profit from killing.

Human Resource at Mcdonald’s Essay

I. Introduction In today’s intensely competitive and global marketplace, having a highly committed or competent workforce is one of the most critical factors in maintaining a competitive advantage (Millmore et al., 2007). Therefore, in a growing number of organizations, strategic human resources management (SHRM) is now viewed as a source of competitive advantage. Strategic human resource management is designed to help companies meet the needs of their employees while promoting company goals. As an important aspect of strategic human resource management is employee development, organisations have to consider employees may want or need and what the company can reasonably supply (Baker, 2009a; Tarique and Schuler, 2010). This research paper tries to discuss how organisations achieve this mission. We will discuss about two very important aspects of SHRM, strategic international HRM (SIHRM) and employment relationship. Although these two fields will be analysed separately, we can see the link bet ween them when we apply them to the case McDonalds’ (Goldsmith et al., 2009). In each section, we will discuss about the theories and models relating to each of those aspects and how these theories showed up in McDonalds’. II. McDonalds’ and Strategic International HRM II.1. Literature review of SIHRM and its frameworks The main trend of recent studies on changes in the business environment is the growth of internalisation, for example Ferenbach and Pinney (2012); Hitt et al. (2012); and Zain and Kassim (2012). As businesses become more and more global, SIHRM plays an important role in the development and success of multi-national corporations (MNCs) (Festing et al., 2012; Smale et al., 2012; and Stahl et al., 2012). According to Briscoe (2012) international human resource management (IHRM) can be defined as set of managerial tools for managing organizational human resources at international level to achieve organizational objectives and competitive advantage over competitors, both domestic and international. IHRM, therefore, includes typical HRM functions such as recruitment, selection, training and development, performance appraisal and rewards and punishment done at international level and additional activities such as global management skills, expatriate management and so on (Millmore et al., 20 07). Milliman et al. (1991) developed a SIHRM framework based theory of â€Å"fit and flexibility†. The concept of â€Å"IHRM fit† included external and internal side. External IHRM fit indicated the MNCs’ capability to deal with the cross-national environment, which includes the social, legal, political and cultural factors of diversified foreign countries where they operate. On the other hand, internal IHRM fit stressed on the management ability to ensure appropriate control and co-ordination between corporate and foreign subsidiaries. In addition to â€Å"fit† concept, â€Å"flexible† was also important as it specified the organisational capability to smoothly implement changes and adapt to diverse circumstances. Zheng (2013) commented on the framework that in today’s open global environment in which information and knowledge is transferred freely and quickly, an integration of fit between internal HRM and external functions is required and sho uld not be treated as two separate functions. The SIHRM framework of Schuler et al. (1993) seems to implement this point (Figure 1). The framework constituted of two major elements: inter-unit linkages and internal operations. Inter-unit linkages showed the MNC’s ability to differentiate its operating units thorough the world while, at the same time, keep them well coordinated and controlled. Internal operations indicated the fit between each unit’s confines of its local environment, laws, politics, culture, economy and society and its own strategic objectives given by the corporation. Schuler et al. (1993) framework’s limitation is to ignore the role of human-beings (managers and staff) which is widely considered as a very important constituent of SIHRM (for example Briscoe et al., 2012; Shi and Handfield, 2012; and Sanchez-Arias et al., 2013). The SIHRM framework of Taylor et al. (1996) stressed on how smoothly top managers can transfer the parent company’s SIHRM orientation to affiliate’s HR M system, then to impart organisational values and top managers’ belief to specific employees within the affiliate (Figure 2). Although Taylor’s model (1996) can complement the limitation of Schuler’s framework (1993), we still need a more detailed and practical model to apply in the real business world. This is the point at which the framework for global talent management of Tarique and Schuler (2010) comes in handy. In the next section, we will discuss about the framework in details and in the case of Mc Donalds’ (Figure 3). II.2. The framework for global talent management and the case of McDonald’s a.Global Talent Challenges for McDonalds’ The major driver of global talent challenges for McDonalds’ is the globalisation. Although globalisation enables firms to employ workers in the developing economies of the world at much lower wages than is possible in the developed economies of the world (Wise and Covarrubias, 2012), it also leads to increasing competition in fast food industry (Asif et al., 2011; Gupta, 2012; and Royle, 2012). In such circumstance, global competitive advantage is only for those multinational firms that succeed in locating and relocating its workforce over the world, adapting to local differences, learn continuously, and transfer knowledge more effectively than their competitors do (Molinsky, 2013; Steers et al., 2013). Therefore, human recourse becomes more and more important in maintaining competitive advantage at MNCs. In addition, as McDonalds’, like other MNCs, expand its business into many other countries, its consumers continue to have very different buying patterns from region to region. The organisation therefore must have a talent management strategy in place that continually assesses whether employees have the ability to address the particular needs of a diverse customer base (Podsiadlowskia et al., 2013). In 2011, Manpower Group conducted research among nearly 25,000 companies across 39 different countries and territories, which shed light on that 32% of American companies were looking for foreign workers, higher than any other area (that number of the whole world was 24%). This raises the demand for workers with competencies and motivation considerably high, especially for American companies. While the demand was getting higher, the foreign labour supply for MNCs was not so abundant. The research of Manpower (2011) showed that 74% of American employers (among 5,820 surveyed companies) found it difficult in recruiting foreign labours. In addition, Pearson (2012) believed that high employee turnover is a threat for today’s businesses. These issues made the labor market more competitive for employers, especially operates in an industry whose the rate of employee turnover is as high as fast food industry (Harris, 2012). For McDonald’s and other fast food restaurant, there is another specific obstacle. According to Sharma and Kiran (2012), employees nowadays do not only look for organisations offering high wage but also those â€Å"whose philosophies and operating practices match with their own principles†. This might create an issue for McDonalds’ to compete in recruiting best talents as fast food restaurants usually have bad reputation of causing ethical healthy issues such as obesity (Fraser et al., 2012; Jeffery and Utter, 2012). Tarique and Schuler (2010) summarised global talent challenges as too little needed talent and too much unneeded talent, or rather â€Å"the needed talent is available in the wrong place†. b.McDonalds’ Human Resource Actions to Address Global Talent Challenges Talent management initiatives can only be effectively successful when linked to the strategies of the organization. Since 2005, McDonald’s global workforce strategy has been designed to be aligned with and support the execution of its business objective, which is â€Å"to become everyone’s favorite place and way to eat† (Harkins et al., 2005). Interestingly, the global talent management practice initiated by McDonalds’ nearly ten years ago was very similar to the Tarique and and Schuler’s framework (2010). Prior to 2001, McDonald’s developed its performance assessment system comprised of six â€Å"performance drivers† (Figure 4) on which managers and staffs’ annual performance will be measured not just on the â€Å"what† of their accomplishments but also on â€Å"how† they accomplished it (Goldsmith et al., 2009). However, when it was rolled out globally in 2003, it was clear that certain elements of the new system re-design were not suited for the foreign cultures and legal structures that existed in certain countries. As a result, all of its affiliate and franchising stores were given flexible to make certain changes to adapt local requirements. This manager’s initiative reflected the â€Å"fit and flexible† concept of Milliman et al. (1991) as discussed in the last section. In 2003, McDonalds’ introduced its Global Talent Review Process of which main purpose is to train and develop next generation of leaders and managers and in 2006, the organisation added a more in-depth analysis of who needs development moves to enhance their experience and a process that facilitates this movement (Goldsmith et al., 2009). The initiative allowed potential leaders of next generation to move more freely to various organizational departments in order to realise development job opportunities with support of their peers and develop their own talents (Brown and Lent, 2012). With the intention of attracting and retaining high-performing talents, The McDonald’s Leadership Institute and the Global Leadership Development Program were introduced in 2006 (McDonald’s, 2013). The Institute was a virtual community that provides a culture of learning and development and to which anyone from any geographic location can accessed. The Global Leadership Development Program focused on preparing participants for broader leadership responsibilities and building a strong peer network that will support these individuals in developing their leadership path. The qualitative impacts of these initiatives were managers and staffs became much more aware of the strengths and talent gaps in each area, so they can recognise their own development needs and develop their talents more effectively. In addition, as the number of cross-organizational movement increased, organisation had better selections for all tasks. Schuler et al. (2010) pointed out several barriers of talent management to which McDonalds’ and other MNCs should pay attention. First, managers at all levels rather spend time on their own pressing tasks than on talent management programs. Second, organizational structures might inhibit collaboration and the sharing of knowledge across boundaries. Finally, HR departments might be short of â€Å"the respect of other executives whose cooperation is needed to implement appropriate HR actions† and might not be able to deal with the global talent challenges. III. McDonalds’ and Employment Relationship III.1. Literature review of employment relationship and new ERM model In last section, we discussed how important talent management is for McDonalds’ to maintain its competitive advantage in today’s widely open business. Although McDonald’s already has a quite complete talent management program, the organisation should be noticed that its workforce strategy could not be successful without great employment relationship. Gospel and Palmer (1993:3) define employment relationship as â€Å"an economic, social and political relationship in which employees provide manual and mental labour in exchange for rewards allotted by employers.† Rose (2004) clarified that rewards can be not only economic but also social and psychological. Millmore et al. (2007) believed that psychological reward is an indispensable part in employment relationship. They went on to define two key strategic concepts that were labour – management partnership and psychological contract. According to Millmore et al. (2007), key values of a successful labour – management partnership included share of goals, culture, knowledge, effort and information. Armstrong (1996) discussed that the labour – management partnership initiated when employees provide skill and effort to employers and the employers provide the employee with a salary in return. However, the employment relationship can also be expressed in terms of a psychological contract defined by Rousseau (1994, cited by Millmore, 2007:448) as â€Å"the understanding people have regarding the commitments made between themselves and their organisations†. Noe (1999, p. 290) states, â€Å"a psychological contract is the expectation that employers and employees have about each other†. According to CIPD (2006), psychological contract breach occurs when employees believe that the organization has failed to deliver its promises or obligations. There were many research works about psychological contract and its importance in employment relationship, for example Robinson and Morrison (2000); Coyle-Shapiro and Kessler (2000); Guest and Conway (2002); Turnley et al. (2003); Conway and Briner (2005). These works however did not point out a model that is practical and easy to apply and measure in the workplace. In addition, because of globalisation and today’s fast changing business environment, the needs of organizations and workers’ expectations changed significantly (Burke and Ng, 2006). Therefore, the traditional psychological contract might not work as well as it had been. Besides, most of the research in the past has emphasised the employee, while it should be on both employees and employers’ perspectives (Baker, 2009a). Baker (2009a) believed that there is a need to develop a new concept of employment relationship that enables corporations to attract good staff and retaining talented employees in toda y’s business environment of volatility, uncertainty, and global competition. In such a business environment the traditional perspective on employment relationship such as that of Gospel and Palmer (1993) might not work. According to Baker (2009a), the new employment relationship model must base on the workers’ needs with organisational outcomes. He then provided core attributes of the model including flexible environment, customer-focus, focus on performance, project-based work, human spirit and work, loyalty, learning and development and open information. In next section, we will discuss about these core attributes with the illustration of McDonalds’. III.2. McDonald’s and the application of new employment relationship model The first aspect of the relationship is flexible employment which defined by Baker (2009a) as organisation policy to encourage workers to work for other units or departments. In 2006, McDonalds’ conducted an in-depth analysis of which staffs could be potential leaders and managers, what skills and experience they needs, to which units they should be moved to get these skills and knowledge, and how to facilitate the movement (Goldsmith et al., 2009). The implementation of flexible employment strategies can create opportunities for workers to develop their career beyond the confines of their specific specialization. Kappia et al. (2007) proved these career development opportunities could be more motivating than monetary rewards. The concept of customer-focus, which becomes more and more important in business techniques (Bharadwaj et al., 2012; Idris, 2012; Kanti, 2012), is the second attributes of new employment relationship model (ERM). The concept of customer-focus places empl oyees in the â€Å"unique position of answering to two bosses†, the organisation and the customer (Baker, 2002). Baker (2009b) believed that a successful customer-focused strategy depend on managers and workers’ good communication with external sources such as local communities and culture. Related to the case of McDonald’s, its customer-focused â€Å"Plan to Win† relies on local talent to develop a deep connection between McDonald’s and the local communities in which it operates (Goldsmith et al., 2009). According to Baker (2009a), the concept of focus-on-performance suggests that customers should focus on the achievements of their job and the way they achieve them instead of job specifications. Organisations, on the other side, should link rewards and benefits with performance rather than organisational policies and rules. Moreover, new ERM suggests that an effective â€Å"multidimensional performance system† promotes workers to contribute beyond their regular task while organisations can utilise and reward workers for these non-job contributions (Baker, 2009b). Since 2001, McDonald’s redesign its performance measurement system with six â€Å"performance drivers† for which employees ‘be measured not just on the â€Å"what† of their accomplishments but also on â€Å"how† they accomplished it’ (Goldsmith et al., 2009). The system also enable top managers to signal the importance of needed culture change in which employees are encouraged to be more innovative and contribute more than merely doing their regular tasks. The fourth aspect of new ERM is project-based work. As business environment is increasingly uncertain and unstable, project-based work gains more interest from both corporations and employees (Watson, 2012). This initiative includes several forms such as temporary and fixed term contracts, outsourcing, flexible time, part-time working, overtime, job rotation, or functional mobility, which provides job flexibility (Peirà ³ et al., 2002) The project-based work is also widely applied in McDonalds’ as the senior managers often depend on peers’ assessment in providing employees development job opportunities (Goldsmith et al., 2009). With the increase in market competition and dynamic work environment, many employees are suffering from work overload that could seriously affect the organisational performance (Altaf and Awan, 2011) and many researchers believes that workplace spirituality is one way to deal with this problem (Karakas, 2010). Baker (2009a) also mentioned human spirit and work as a function of new ERM. The effectiveness of the workplace spirituality on work performace, however, is still criticised by several researches and hypothesis tests, for example Bell et al. (2012) and Weitz (2012). There is also no evidence that this concept has ever been applied at McDonalds’. Another aspect of new ERM doubted to be effective and not applied at McDonalds’ is open information. Loyalty and commitment, on the other hand, has no doubt to be a so important attribute of new ERM. According to Baker (2009b), these aspects should come from both sides. Employees’ loyalty is to enhance organisational outcome rather than processes, while organisational commitment is to improve employees’ personal objectives and development. McDonald’s has paid significant attention to its employees for years. McDonald’s has its Commitment Survey to assesses employee satisfaction with the support and recognition they receive, the extent to which their skills are utilized and developed, the degree of their empowerment, working condition and their compensation (Goldsmith et al., 2009). A manager’s scores on the Commitment Survey are one of many important factors considered in assess employees’ effectiveness and potential for advancement. Much related to this aspect is learning and development. As discussed in last section, McDonalds’ initiated its The Leadership at McDonald’s Program, which aimed at identifying developing high potential talent, in 2004 (Goldsmith et al., 2009). Having been accessed as qualified candidates of the program, employees will be granted for many individual learning opportunities. First, each participant will have a coach to discuss progress against objectives and receive objective feedback and developmental coaching throughout the program. They also have opportunities to work closely with McDonald’s high potential peers throughout the program and with talented management peers from other companies/industries as part of the Thunderbird Program in order to build strong internal and external peer networks ( Goldsmith et al., 2009). The application of these attributes brought McDonalds’ several positive signs. As of mid-2006, 34% of the 104 graduates of the LAMP Program have been promoted while only 4% of the them have left the company for other opportunities. It is a key objective of the program for its participants to know they are highly regarded and that the company will continue to invest in their ongoing development. The program also made itself a strong brand identity and equity within the organization and more and more employees want to join the program (Goldsmith et al., 2009). IV. Conclusion As SHRM becomes more and more important for organisations, it is critical for managers to understand not only its related theories and concepts but also discover and invent the most practical models for which they can apply to their organisation. As businesses become more and more global SIHRM and the model of global talent management of Tarique and Schuler (2010) plays an important role in the development and success of MNCs. Even when organisations already have a quite complete talent management program, they should notice that its workforce strategy could not be successful without good employment relationship. Baker (2009a) believed that there is a need to develop a new concept of employment relationship in today’s business environment of volatility, uncertainty, and global competition and he introduced the new ERM. The case of McDonalds’ (Goldsmith et al., 2009) has shed the light on how practically successful these models could be when appropriately and effectively applying in an organisation. This is, however, just the beginning of these relatively young models and the question of whether these models can create sustainable competitive advantage will need more academic and practical researches in the future.

Anxiety Disorders

As you get up every morning, there is a fear of crossing that day. What happens if you are often concerned? What if there is a spontaneous and uncontrollable panic attack throughout the day? What if you can not control your hand to wash their bloody broken places? What happens if you have anxiety disorder? Anxiety is the most common disease in the United States, affecting 40 million adults over the age of 18; this accounts for 18% of the U.S. population. However, 22.8% of cases were considered as severe anxiety. Anxiety is thought to be an impairment of the shaft, there are five types of anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, anxiety disorder and panic disorder, phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. The definition of post-traumatic stress disorder is as follows. Exposure to trauma, repression, abuse and development of severe situations and anxiety disorders of severe natural and unnatural disasters. Symptoms of post traumatic stress disord er are usually as follows: ... The crowd is anxiety disorder. It is clear that Western anxiety is increasing. Three main factors contribute to this, including treatment and reduction of anxiety in patients receiving education systems, technology, media, criticism. It is worth noting that in recent years it has become more difficult whether the educational system is good or bad in various ways. However, those who tend to be uneasy often go to school There are several types of anxiety disorders such as post - panic disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and related disorders, stress related diseases and trauma: The latest diagnosis and mental disorder statistical manual (DSM - 5) destroys anxiety to three categories. This difference suggests that although these diseases are commonly related, they are very diff erent. The six most common forms of anxiety are generalized anxiety disorder, post panic disorder, phobia, social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) is characterized by nonspecific living events, excessive concern about subjects and condition. People with GAD are often difficult to identify specific fears and control them. This means that fear is often unreasonable and not proportional to expectation under normal circumstances. Anxiety Disorders Anxiety Disorder Anxiety is a tension associated with dangerous threats when the cause of anxiety is unknown. In contrast, fear is a tension associated with known hazards. I believe that mild anxiety in our daily life is normal. I was a little worried about that day, but everyday I can think about it. Anxiety warns us that we can prepare for response to battle and escape. However, the increase in anxiety hurts emotionally. Anxiety is thought to be an impairment of the shaft, there are five types of anxiety disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, anxiety disorder and panic disorder, phobia, obsessive-compulsive disorder and post-traumatic stress disorder. The definition of post-traumatic stress disorder is as follows. Exposure to trauma, repression, abuse and development of severe situations and anxiety disorders of severe natural and unnatural disasters. Symptoms of post traumatic stress disorder are usually as follows: ... The crowd is anxiety disorder. It is clear that Western anxi ety is increasing. Three main factors contribute to this, including treatment and reduction of anxiety in patients receiving education systems, technology, media, criticism. It is worth noting that in recent years it has become more difficult whether the educational system is good or bad in various ways. However, those who tend to be uneasy often go to school There are several types of anxiety disorders such as post - panic disorder, specific phobias, social anxiety disorder, post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and generalized anxiety disorder (GAD). Anxiety disorder, obsessive compulsive disorder, and related disorders, stress related diseases and trauma: The latest diagnosis and mental disorder statistical manual (DSM - 5) destroys anxiety to three categories. This difference suggests that although these diseases are commonly related, they are very different.

Pleaes .Requires.Overview.Paraphrase..rewrttin Essay

Pleaes .Requires.Overview.Paraphrase..rewrttin - Essay Example Medical imaging involving ionizing radiation uses x-rays and gamma rays. As the ionizing radiation passes through the body, it is differentially absorbed by tissues of greater thickness, causing ionization of tissue atoms making them chemically reactive and potentially capable of cell damage (Yale 2011). This raises concern over the frequent use of ionising radiation in medical imaging, and the associated risks to human health. Exposure to ionizing radiation is of concern because evidence has linked exposure to low-level ionizing radiation at doses used in medical imaging to the development of cancer. The National Academy of Sciences’ National Research Council comprehensively reviewed biological and epidemiological data related to health risks from exposure to ionizing radiation, recently published as the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiation (BEIR) VII Phase 2 report. The epidemiologic data described atomic bomb survivors, populations who lived near nuclear facilities duri ng accidental releases of radioactive materials such as Chernobyl, workers with occupational exposures, and populations who received exposures from diagnostic and therapeutic medical studies. Radiation doses associated with commonly used CT examinations resemble doses received by individuals in whom an increased risk of cancer was documented. For example, an increased risk of cancer has been identified among long-term survivors of the Hiroshima and Nagasaki atomic bombs, who received exposures of 10 to 100 milli-sieverts (mSv). A single CT scan can deliver an equivalent radiation exposure, and patients may receive multiple CT scans over time. (Smith-Bindman et al 2009) Risks involved in the use of Ionizing radiation Since the finding of the first solid tumour that resulted from the effects of ionizing radiation, protection from ionizing radiation used in medical procedures has become a vital issue, particularly in view of the dramatic increase in the number medical procedures involv ing its use (Davros et al 2007). Because of the public uproar over radiation protection, an International Commission for Radiation Protection was established in 1928. "The International Commission on Radiological Protection (ICRP) estimates that the average person has an approximately 4-5% increased relative risk of fatal cancer after a whole-body dose of 1 Sv. However, other studies on multiple cohorts of radiation workers have largely failed to establish statistically significant cancer risks. When multiple occupational cohorts were combined and evaluated in a somewhat systematic way, a combined excess relative risk of cancer death of just less than 1% was estimated" (Cardis et al 2005). During the 1950s and 1960s, there were an increasing number of indicators that ionizing radiation was dangerous to humans. Experimentation using X-rays on animals, particularly rats, have linked ionizing radiation exposure to impending death, even at low levels. It has been proved that high and mo re frequent doses of radiation pose greater risks to the patient, causing, for example, skin erythema and other kinds of irritations (Egbe et al 2009). Other side-effects of ionizing radiation include dizziness, nausea, and light headedness. Risks associated with radiation exposure in hepato-biliary scans are quite high. In a study by McCollough et al (2009) it was found that in many cases, the onset of cancer was linked to the area frequently exposed to x-rays. Other studies suggest that

What are three rewards and three challenges that you will face as a Essay

What are three rewards and three challenges that you will face as a teacher - Essay Example So the very privilege of getting the opportunity to shape and direct the young minds as a teacher is a great reward in itself (Kauchak &Eggen, 2010). Besides, it is a discernable, yet, never accepted fact that teaching is not regarded by the contemporary society as a real and challenging profession (Kauchak & Eggen, 2010). Very few people harbor the ambition and desire to choose teaching as a profession. So, as a teacher I will find it really tempting to present myself as a competitive and ambitious role model dedicated to serving the society, in the field of education. As a teacher I intend to be really proactive in my approach and choices. I not only aim to do the best where I am placed, but also aspire to advance in the ranks by the dint of my sincerity and dedication, intending to ascend the professional platform where I have the power to make the real changes required in the contemporary education system. I am also aware of the challenges that I will have to face as a teacher. One immediate challenge will be the academic norms set by the No Kid Left behind Act. In my opinion the kind of standardization and homogenization that this Act has ushered in the education system has pragmatically done very little to improve it (Cochran-Smith, 2005, p. 99). I also hold that a teacher tends to be the part of a team involving other stakeholders like parents and the society (Kauchak & Eggen, 2010). Considering my intolerance for the lack of parental involvement, I think this issue will be the other big challenge that I will have to deal with as a teacher. As I have already said that teaching is about team work, hence a single teacher cannot bring about the desired changes in a systematic and timely manner, unless one’s zeal and enthusiasm is to some extent shared by one’s seniors, colleagues and the entire system in general (Moore, 2004, p. 133) . So one more challenge for me will b e to bring in a leadership that intends to restore passion

Hiring of Disabled Skilled Knowledge Workers Research Paper

Hiring of Disabled Skilled Knowledge Workers - Research Paper Example Employers must more often consider hiring disabled skilled knowledge workers as another practice to achieve established organizational goals and objectives. A survey conducted showed that 90 percent of the disabled skilled knowledge workers produced average or above average work output performances compared to the non-disabled workers. Similarly, another survey showed that an estimated 85 percent of the disabled skilled knowledge workers generated average or better attendance results compared to the non-disabled skilled knowledge workers. Another research showed an estimated 97 percent of the disabled skilled knowledge workers produced average or better work safety results than the non-disabled skilled knowledge workers. Lastly, another research indicates the disabled skilled knowledge workers showed an estimated 71 percent retention than the non-disabled skilled knowledge workers. In terms of employee availability, the disabled skilled knowledge workers group represents a significan tly very huge pool of untapped and unnoticed possible employee sources (Williams, 2011). To maximize the employment of disabled skilled knowledge workers, the companies must commit themselves to allocating huge funds for the provision of the reasonable workplace environment. Reasonable workplace environment includes installing wheelchair paths, handrails. Another disability workplace improvement is the installation of accessible washrooms. A third disability workplace improvement is modifying the workstations of the disabled skilled knowledge workers to reduce the unnecessary mobility of the disabled skilled knowledge workers (Williams, 2011). Employers should more often prioritize the hiring of disabled skilled knowledge workers. With the advent of the current information technology age, the need for knowledge workers continues to increase (Williams, 2011).  

Identify and Critically Evaluate Ecotourism Essay

Identify and Critically Evaluate Ecotourism - Essay Example Moreover, less developed countries want to join tourism fever and appeal for investors to get money to their countries. This is where the roots of ecotourism come from. Though ecotourism is rather new field of human activity and it has not still been discovered if it is an aspect of mass tourism or an independent phenomenon of human activity. The interest of the world’s community to indigenous cultures and remote lands predict a great success to ecotourism. Further research is focused on considering ecotourism as aspect of nature based tourism. People are anxious about overall industrialization and technocratic society. They want to overcome their alienation from nature. Ecotourism is a perfect alternative to mass tourism that â€Å"frequently led to resource depletion and negative impacts on the values of local people and their cultural heritage. Pollution and over use, which degraded the beauty of many of the sites, became common occurrences† (Parks and Allen, 2009). Moreover, an important role of ecotourism can be explained by its main advantage – to preserve indigenous nature and remote land. Therefore, a public attention to nature preservation is determined in the framework of recycling programs, emissions reduction laws and regulations and development of nature preservation programs on the global level. ... The root of the problem lies deep inside the appearance of ecotourism as a separate field (Donohoe & Needham, 2006). The term ecotourism appeared in the academic literature in the middle of 80s. Currently, it is a specific field of studies in tourism and a separate sphere of activity that is differentiated from tourism as such. Sometimes ecotourism is perceived in the framework of an alternative tourism (Blamey, 1997; 2001). Therefore, conventional mass tourism may be interpreted as an external environment for ecotourism development. The main part of ecotourism niche is set by different private sector businesses (ecotour operators) and corresponding alternative attractions (e.g. cableways and submarines that make an access to different inaccessible easier). Thus, there is a need for alternative operators and firms mediating ecotourism (Donohoe & Needham, 2006). A level of businesses involved in ecotourism ranges from private small businesses to large transnational corporations. Anoth er important and wide-spread model of ecotourism is community-based model of service provision in this sphere (Donohoe & Needham, 2006). A specific nature of ecotourism raises specific issues for ecotourism operators’ considerations. These are accessibility and low costs of natural resources. From different perspectives, scientists and researchers have found different peculiarities of ecotourism development. In accordance with Donohoe & Needham (2006), the example of South African ecotourism supports the fact that cooperation of ecotourism operators with small communities is a perfect way to reach an enormous success in this sphere of activity. Further on, it is underlined that the more competitive clusters within ecotourism exist, the more successful this sphere is (Blamey,

Consumer Attitude Moulding for Korean car Imports in Australian Market Essay

Consumer Attitude Moulding for Korean car Imports in Australian Market - Essay Example ative characteristics, here the attitude hierarchy would be cognitive then affect, how the consumer feels or first chose emotional then rational, you will not act on it before you go through a cognitive and emotional process (Foxall, 2002). You will make sure that you look at as many features as possible and go through intense emotional processes, instead of depending on your mood while looking at a car. For example if you have a family you will consider a mini-van over a convertible because of the added benefits and features, you will then see if you will enjoy the car, how will your family like it is it giving you the satisfaction you want, and then you will finally decide on the connotation, whether you want to buy it or not. This goes for all products that require high involvement of the consumer. (Windham & Orton, 2000) As a strategic Marketing manager for a new line of South Korean cars in Australia I have to consider many things about the product. As a Strategic Marketing Manager I should have in-depth knowledge of competitive dynamics and how to integrate marketing strategy into the overall business strategy, I should be able to develop Frameworks for analyzing customer preferences and enhancing customer relationships and should be able to Build and manage brand equity with effective market communication. (Chernev, 2007) (Stanford, 2008) Hyundai and its auxiliary Kia are currently the 7th largest car group in the world, just after companies like GM, Ford, Toyota, Renault-Nissan, Volkswagen and DaimlerChrysler. It is also one of the fastest rising companies and a formidable rival to Western car makers. With the benefits such as low labour and parts cost in Korea and the government’s policies that favour the car industry, Hyundai and Kia are able to price their cars much cheaper and at an affordable cost than Western and Japanese cars. At the same time, the company has been able to improve its engineering and quality standard swiftly in recent years,

Forest Management and unlawfull logging in Cameroon (centre Africa ) Thesis

Forest Management and unlawfull logging in Cameroon (centre Africa ) - Thesis Example The Congo Basin in Africa has the second largest rain forest in the world after the Amazon rain forest. It had almost one hundred and ninety million hectares in 1995 (Hutter, 2000) and was spread across countries like Equatorial Guinea, The Central African Republic, the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Republic of Congo, Gabon and also Cameroon. Cameroon is located to the north of the equator and is bordered by countries like Equatorial Guinea, the Republic of Congo, Gabon, Central African Republic, Chad, and Nigeria. While in the north, Cameroon is covered by savannas, in the south it is has a dense tropical forest (Cameroon Forests, n.d.). The country is inhabited by more than two hundred ethnic groups and has a diverse wildlife with over four hundred species of mammals and seven hundred species of birds. There are also numerous plant species in these forests many of which are endangered. About seventy five percent of Cameroon consists of dense forests or woodlands. The country al so has an affluent literary heritage. The biodiversity of Cameroon especially in flora and fauna is worth a mention. Of the total forested area seventy percent has a dense forest cover with a thick canopy of leaves that covers the sky. It consists of fifty percent of the country’s area. The entire forested region of the country is not suitable for logging. Out of the twenty four million hectare spread of dense forest in the country seventeen million is suitable for logging activity (Cameroon, n.d.). Logging is an important economic activity for the people of Cameroon and accounted for nine percent of the tax revenue of the country. Data suggests that logging generated $60 million for the Cameroon government in 1997-98 as tax revenue. Commercial logging had been an active source of livelihood for a large number of people for over a century. But in recent times the environment of the Cameroon is being threatened by rampant felling of trees for the timbre. In the past few decade s a large amount of the forest has given way to open lands for agricultural tracts, farms and human settlements. Though cutting of trees for agricultural lands is the primary reason of deforestation, logging activities is also responsible for the threat that the forest faces. Some facts about deforestation have been revealed in a report of the Global Forest Watch. The report mentions that the United Nations Food and Agricultural Organization estimated that out of the 21.6 million hectares of historic forest cover of Cameroon in 1980 only 19.6 million remained in 1995. From 1980 to 1998 the population of Cameroon increased by more than sixty six percent (from 8.6 million to 14.3 million). This caused an increase in demand for land and resources. The excess demand of land for agriculture and human inhabitation was satisfied at the expense of the forest cover. According to the legislation of Cameroon, the locals have a right over the products of the forests though the government owns t he right to the trees and everything below the soil like oil. As of now, Cameroon ranks among the top five exporter of timbre in the world. But the population is increasing steadily and the modest reserve of oil that the country had been blessed with is depleting at a fast rate. This depletion of oil, the environmentalists fear, will put more pressure on the demand for forest resources to supplement the loss of income when all the oil has been exhausted. Logging is very crucial activity for the regional as well as the national income of the country. The government of the country has realized this. So they have given a high priority to the conservation of forest and the issue figures in almost all the agendas of the local and national politics. Towards the end of the past millennium the president of the country Paul Biya organized a summit for the head of the states to discuss the issue of proper management of the forest and its resources. It resulted in the Yaounde Declaration where five

The advantages of teaching Citzenship as a discrete subject over Essay

The advantages of teaching Citzenship as a discrete subject over teaching it through other subject areas of the curriculum - Essay Example ship, exclusively, is both a discrete subject and also a culture - which is a way of living with its own distinct set of values, attitudes and nature which supports continuous lifelong learning. Since citizenship education is so completely new to the curriculum in most schools, the timetable contexts in which it takes place are likely to vary quite considerably. ‘Many schools are recognizing the wider benefits of citizenship and offer special themed days with a collapsed timetable and specialist speakers.   In some schools, citizenship may be part of, and an extension to, existing programme of Pastoral, Social and Health Education (PSHE). In others there may be timetable slots quite explicitly labelled Citizenship. In yet others, the requirements of the citizenship curriculum may be addressed within a framework of Humanities teaching. Still other schools may decide to address citizenship in a totally embedded cross-curricular way, identifying specific elements of the citizenship curriculum to be included in individual subject departments’ schemes of work. Some schools are taking the opportunity to reflect on their organisation and are embracing a citizenship ethos in which citizenship concepts and knowledge are developed through active participation and greater learner responsibility. These schools have effective schools councils, student consultation and representation, shadowing, specialist student training, peer work, whole school special focus days, local and national student elections, involvement with other schools and links with the wider community including their local councilors and MP. Trainees on the course are encouraged to see themselves, first and foremost, as citizenship teachers capable of straddling most, if not all, of the fields of knowledge and pedagogical approaches to which reference has been made. Realistically, and in order to build a viable personal teaching timetable while on school experience, there may be a need to undertake

Act 4 of the crucible is dynamic theatre Essay Example for Free

Act 4 of the crucible is dynamic theatre Essay The Crucible provides us with what can only be described as masterpiece of dramatic writing. Written by Arthur Miller in 1952, the most powerful scenes in The Crucible have several common characteristics; very effective use of stage directions, long build-ups of suspense that come crashing down in thundering climaxes, intense displays of emotion and an abundance of dramatic irony.  The play, set in 1692, is based upon the outbreak of accusations of witchcraft in Salem, Massachusetts. Miller wrote the play using this 17th-century case (and fictionalising it) to comment on a 20th-century phenomenon the exposure of suspected communists. In 17th century Salem the inhabitants feared witchcraft as America feared communism in the 1950s; and many similarities can be drawn between the events of the two periods. Both were exaggerated out of all reasonable proportion and each contains communities that display an irrational fear of an ill perceived threat to their stability of life. Indeed, the theme of culpability that runs throughout the play is mirrored constantly in modern society, particularly in politics, where those in office are frequently blamed for incidents that are completely beyond their control. The writing of this play stemmed from Millers personal interest in the Salem witch trials and at the time, America was in the middle of the McCarthy political Witch Hunt. Miller himself was called before a committee, and he began to notice a certain resemblance between the two trials, such as naming and shaming by people anxious to divert attention from themselves, together with confessions given under duress. This has resulted in the play being seen as a political allegory. At the beginning of act 4 we see symbolic setting and scenery created through Millers clever use of stage directions, which in turn, introduces and establishes the tone that will continue throughout the remainder of the play. For example, the reference to moonlight seeping through the bars of the darkened cell metaphorically suggests to the reader that there is still hope for the  wrongly accused sufferers of the witch hunt, the light being a positive aspect in the otherwise bleak atmosphere. This technique of using light symbolically is revisited later in the scene; the new sun is pouring in, reinforcing the theme of dramatic lighting that is so very important within the play. It is perhaps this phrase that best sums up the intensity of relief felt at the end of the ordeal, and emphasizes the theme of transition and change, highlighted in particular by the word new. Another way in which Miller successfully creates tension within the play is through the use of apposite props and evocative scenery, most notably in the jail; a high barred window, near it, a great, heavy door. This evokes a strong sense of oppression, in particular the heavy door which could be arguably be seen as a metaphor for the ignorance displayed by the townspeople of Salem. Furthermore, we see the play end on a very dramatic note; The final drumroll crashes, then heightens violently, surely emblematic of the last brutal act of the witch-hunt; the violent demise of the hero and the end of the suffering of those persecuted by fear and ignorance. Dramatic theatre would be nothing however, without the powerful characters at the heart of the story, and the depth they bring to it through their emotions and actions. At the very beginning of the scene, we see a representation of the main theme of the story; the helplessness of the villagers against the cruel authority of Danforth, illustrated by the forcible removal of Tituba and Sarah Good from their cell. The power struggle between those in office and the common man draws great empathy from the audience and reinforces the brutality of the entire ordeal. Indeed, the womens response to the guards; We goin to Barbados, soon devil gits here highlights the villagers great superstition around Satan, giving the audience insight into how the situation has spiraled out of control, and how their fears fuel the fires of hysteria, allowing the oppression of the villagers to continue unabated.

Impact of Technology Essay Example for Free

Impact of Technology Essay Students in the early grades, from pre-K to grade 3, and in the middle school grades appear to benefit most from DES applications for reading instruction, as do students with special reading needs. In a 2000 study commissioned by the Software and Information Industry Association, Sivin-Kachala and Bialo (2000) reviewed 311 research studies on the effectiveness of technology on student achievement. Their findings revealed positive and consistent patterns when students were engaged in technology-rich environments, including significant gains and achievement in all subject areas, increased achievement in preschool through high school for both regular and special needs students, and improved attitudes toward learning and increased self-esteem. ODwyer, Russell, Bebell, and Tucker-Seeley (2005) found that, while controlling for both prior achievement and socioeconomic status, fourth-grade students who reported greater frequency of technology use at school to edit papers were likely to have higher total English/language arts test scores and higher writing scores on fourth grade test scores on the Massachusetts Comprehensive Assessment System (MCAS) English/Language Arts test. Michigans Freedom to Learn (FTL) initiative, an effort to provide middle school students and teachers with access to wireless laptop computers, has been credited with improving grades, motivation and discipline in classrooms across the state, with one exemplary school seeing reading proficiency scores on the Michigan Education Assessment Program (MEAP) test, administered in January 2005, reportedly increasing from 29 percent to 41 percent for seventh graders and from 31 to 63 percent for eighth graders (eSchool News, 2005). In examining large-scale state and national studies, as well as some innovative smaller studies on newer educational technologies, Schacter (1999) found that students with access to any of a number of technologies (such as computer assisted instruction, integrated learning systems, simulations and software that teaches higher order thinking, collaborative networked technologies, or design and programming technologies) show positive gains in achievement on researcher constructed tests, standardized tests, and national tests. Cavanaughs synthesis (2001) of 19 experimental and quasi-experimental studies of the effectiveness of interactive distance education using videoconferencing and telecommunications for K-12 academic achievement found a small positive effect in favor of distance education and more positive effect sizes for interactive distance education programs that combine an individualized approach with traditional classroom instruction. Boster, Meyer, Roberto, ; Inge (2002) examined the integration of standards-based video clips into lessons developed by classroom teachers and found increases student achievement. The study of more than 1,400 elementary and middle school students in three Virginia school districts showed an average increase in learning for students exposed to the video clip application compared to students who received traditional instruction alone. Wenglinsky (1998) noted that for fourth- and eighth-graders technology has positive benefits on achievement as measured in NAEPs mathematics test. Interestingly, Wenglinsky found that using computers to teach low order thinking skills, such as drill and practice, had a negative impact on academic achievement, while using computers to solve simulations saw their students math scores increase significantly. Hiebert (1999) raised a similar point. When students over-practice procedures before they understand them, they have more difficulty making sense of them later; however, they can learn new concepts and skills while they are solving problems. In a study that examined relationship between computer use and students science achievement based on data from a standardized assessment, Papanastasiou, Zemblyas, Vrasidas (2003) found it is not the computer use itself that has a positive or negative effect on achievement of students, but the way in which computers are used. Researchers are also making progress on the more complicated task of investigating the impact of technology use on higher order thinking skills as measured through means other than standardized tests. They are examining students ability to understand complex phenomena, analyze and synthesize multiple sources of information, and build representations of their own knowledge. At the same time, some researchers are calling for newer standardized assessments that emphasize the ability to access, interpret, and synthesize information. Research indicates that computer technology can help support learning and is especially useful in developing the higher-order skills of critical thinking, analysis, and scientific inquiry by engaging students in authentic, complex tasks within collaborative learning contexts (Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin ; Means, 2000; Means, et. al. , 1993). While research linking technology integration, inquiry-based teaching, and emphasis on problem solving with student achievement is emergent, some research exists that suggests a connection. In a 2001 study of Enhancing Missouris Instructional Networked Teaching Strategies (eMints) program, a statewide technology integration initiative, eMINTS students scored consistently higher on the Missouri Assessment Program (MAP) than non-eMINTS students, including eMINTS students classified as having special needs. The higher MAP results were found to be associated with the instructional practices (Evaluation Team Policy Brief, 2002). The eMINTS program provides teachers with professional development to help integrate technology so that they can use inquiry-based teaching and emphasize critical-thinking and problem-solving skills. The program has since expanded to not only Missouri schools and districts but also other states as well. Currently, 232 Missouri districts, 10 Utah districts, 56 Maine districts, 2 Nevada districts, and 1 Illinois district, representing 1,000 classrooms and 22,500 students now take advantage of the eMINTS program offerings. Test results continue to show that, on most state tests, students enrolled in eMINTS classrooms scored higher than students enrolled in non-eMINTS classrooms and that low-income and special education students in eMINTS classes generally score higher than their non-eMINTS peers (eMINTS, 2005). Results from other studies (Perez-Prado and Thirunarayanan 2002; Cooper 2001; Smith, Ferguson and Caris 2001) also suggest that students can benefit from technology-enhanced collaborative learning methods and the interactive learning process. Roschelle, Pea, Hoadley, Gordin, Means (2000) identify four fundamental characteristics of how technology can enhance both what and how children learn in the classroom: (1) active engagement, (2) participation in groups, (3) frequent interaction and feedback, and (4) connections to real-world contexts. They also indicate that use of technology is more effective as a learning tool when embedded in a broader education reform movement that includes improvements in teacher training, curriculum, student assessment, and a schools capacity for change. Back To Top FACTORS TO CONSIDER Inclusion: Reaching All Students A major concern of many educators with regard to educational technology is its potential to exclude those who may not have access to it, or may not be able to use it. Regardless of what research may indicate concerning positive effects of technology on student learning, technology will be of limited use in achieving the goals of NCLB if is not available to all students. Students at Risk. Research demonstrates that the challenge of helping teachers and students achieve ICT literacy, and the challenge of establishing frameworks for assessing their skills, is most acute in schools serving low-socioeconomic, minority students (Becker, 2000b; Becker ; Ravitz, 1997). While public debate about the digital divide centers on basic technology access, the gap is even wider when measured by the pedagogical practices associated with technology use in different schools. More than half (53%) of teachers in public schools who have computers use them or the Internet for instruction during class. But in schools whose students are from higher-income families, 61 percent of teachers with computers use them in class compared to 50 percent of those teaching in schools with lower-income students (Lenhart, Rainie ; Lewis, 2001). And as wired as many young people are, the same study that found 87 percent of young people use the Internet also found that 3 million remain without Internet access. Many of those without access come from financially disadvantaged backgrounds, and a disproportionate number are black (eSchool News, 2005a). Schools serving students living in poverty tend to use technology for more traditional memory-based and remedial activities, while schools serving wealthier communities are more likely to focus on communication and expression. A nationwide study examining the relationship between socioeconomic status and teaching practices around technology found that teaching in low-SES schools correlated most strongly with using technology for reinforcement of skills and remediation of skills, while teaching in higher-SES schools correlated most with analyzing information and presenting information to an audience (Becker, 2000b). At the same time, although less studied than other outcomes, demonstration efforts and anecdotal evidence suggest that teaching ICT literacy skills (specifically those related to multimedia literacy in Web, publishing and video production) can improve the economic prospects of at-risk youth by giving them marketable skills (Lau ; Lazarus, 2002). Back To Top Language Learners. Likewise, in teaching language learners, using technology has distinct advantages that relate not only to language education but preparing students for todays information society. Computer technologies and the Internet are powerful tools for assisting language teaching because Web technology is a part of todays social fabric, meaning language learners can now learn thorough writing e-mail and conducting online research (Wang, 2005). In Oregon secondary schools, wirelessly networked note taking is used to support Hispanic migrant students who speak English as a second language (ESL). As part of the InTime project, ESL students attend regular high school classes along with a bilingual, note-taking/mentoring partner. Note takers and students communicate using a collaborative word processing and graphics package on wirelessly networked laptop computers. During class presentations, ESL students can read their note takers translation of key words, allowing students to build both English and Spanish literacy skills as they advance academically (Knox and Anderson-Inman, 2001). Students with Disabilities. For several decades, the American educational system has taken a narrow view of special education, treating it as a mini-school within the school where teachers, largely cut off from the rest of the staff, faced a group of students with an incredibly wide range of abilities and disabilities and made the best of it. Today, that view of special education is giving way to a broader, more philosophical approach—an approach designed to weave inclusive practices into t he fabric of the whole-school environment. (MOSAIC, 2000a). The shift in recognizing the needs of students with disabilities in relationship to their general education peers began with the 1997 amendments to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. Before the law, many children with disabilities who were not in schools at all because schools had chosen to exclude them (MOSAIC, 2000b). IDEA clearly established that all students with disabilities have the right to public education. More than 6 million children with disabilities ages 3 to 21 years old are served in federally supported programs (Snyder Tan, 2005). However, students with disabilities frequently experience insufficient access to and success in the general education curriculum. This is especially true for adolescent learners, even non-disabled students, who must cope with the emphasis on learning from text (Biancarosa Snow, 2004; Kamil, 2003). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) takes advantage of the opportunity brought by rapidly evolving communication technologies to create flexible teaching methods and curriculum materials that can reach diverse learners and improve student access to the general education curriculum (Rose Meyer, 2002). UDL assumes that students bring different needs and skills to the task of learning, and the learning environment should be designed to both accommodate, and make use of, these differences (Bowe 2000; Rose Meyer, 2002). To promote improved access to the general curriculum for all learners, including learners with disabilities, Rose Meyer (2002) have identified three key principles or guidelines for UDL: Presenting information in multiple formats and multiple media. Offering students with multiple ways to express and demonstrate what they have learned. Providing multiple entry points to engage student interest and motivate learning. For example, printed reading materials pose substantial challenges to the learning of students with disabilities (J. Zorfass: personal communication, October 2005). Technology can assist with such difficulties by enabling a shift from printed text to electronic text, which Anderson-Inman and Reinking (1998) assert can be modified, enhanced, programmed, linked, searched, collapsed, and collaborative. Text styles and font sizes can be modified as needed by readers with visual disabilities; read aloud by a computer-based text-to-speech translators; and integrated with illustrations, videos, and audio. Electronic text affords alternative formats for reading materials that can be customized to match learner needs, can be structured in ways that scaffold the learning process and expand both physical and cognitive access, and can foster new modes of expression through revision and multimedia (J. Zorfass: personal communication, October 2005). It represents one way that technology can support the achievement of students with disabilities. Technology also has a role to play in the testing of students with disabilities. A notable outgrowth of NCLB is the legislations mandatory requirement that states account for individual subgroups, which has further challenged schools and districts to acknowledge students with disabilities (McLaughlin, S Embler, K Nagle, 2004; Nagle, 2005). State academic content and achievement standards now define the goals of education for all students, and most students with disabilities are now expected to reach the same level of proficiency as their non-disabled peers. In order to ensure that disabilities do not prevent students from participating in standardized assessments, students with disabilities are entitled to take these tests in the same way as their peers, with accommodations, or with an alternate assessment (Thompson, Thurlow, ; Moore, 2003). These accommodations or alternatives must not alter the content standard being measured nor the achievement standard (McLaughlin, Embler ; Nagle, 2004). While technology can support such accommodations and alternatives, striking a balance between accommodation and standardization across all students testing experiences remains a subject of debate today (Murray, 2005). Back To Top Educational Technology and Data Driven Decision Making The effectiveness of educational technology on student learning depends not only on what outcomes are targeted and how the technology is integrated into instruction, but also on how teachers assess student performance in classrooms and adjust instruction accordingly. Technology offers teachers a broad range of tools to collect and analyze data, and richer sets of student data to guide instructional decisions. NCLB has prompted educators to think much more systematically about educational decision-making and the use of data to inform their decisions about everything from resource allocation to instructional practice. Schools are now expected to monitor their efforts to enable all students to achieve, and administrators and teachers are now expected to be prepared to use data to understand where students are academically and to establish targeted, responsive, and flexible ways to improve this academic standing (Mitchell, Lee, Herman, 2000, p. 2). However, despite encouragement at the policy level, there is growing consensus that schools are not adequately prepared for the task of routinely thinking critically about the relationships between instructional practices and student outcomes (Confrey Makar, 2005; Olsen, 2003; Hammerman Rubin, 2002; Herman Gribbons, 2001; Kearns Harvey, 2000). Recent research conducted by EDCs Center for Children and Technology has found that educators working at different levels of a school system have distinctive intuitive approaches to the process, despite the absence of systematic training in a particular approach to data-driven decision-making. For example, school administrators use high-stakes test data to allocate resources and plan professional development and other kinds of targeted intervention activities by identifying general patterns of performance, class-, grade-, and school-wide strengths and weaknesses. Teachers tend to use multiple sources of data—homework assignments, in-class tests, classroom performances, and experiential information—to inform their thinking about their students strengths and weaknesses (Brunner, Fasca, Heinze, Honey, Light, Mandinach ; Wexler, 2005; Light, Wexler ; Heinze, 2004; Honey, Brunner, Light, Kim, McDermott, Heinze, Bereiter ; Mandinach, 2002). While drawing on varied sources of data to form opinions about students competencies is not new behavior for teachers, significant research (Mandinach, Honey, Light, Heinze, Rivas, 2005; Confrey Makar, 2002, 2005; Hammerman, Rubin, 2002, 2003) suggests that teachers examine factors that contribute to individual patterns of behavior and think case-by-case, rather than identify patterns in data at different levels of aggregation, from student-to-student, class-to-class, and year-to-year, and systematically analyze the relationship between student performance and instructional strategies and materials. Data literacy—the ability of instructional leaders and teachers to work individually and collectively to examine outcomes-based achievement data, formative assessment measures of student performance, and students work products, and to develop strategies for improvement based on these data—is now widely recognized as a critical strategy in the academic performance of schools (Fullan, 1999; Haycock, 2001; Johnson, 1996; Love, 2004; Schmoker, 1999; Zalles, 2005). A key concept of data literacy is generating only the data that are needed and making full use of whats collected. The National Research Council (1996) notes that, far too often, more educational data are collected and analyzed than are used to make decisions or take action (p. 90). Those resources become meaningful to educators only when they are transformed into information, and ultimately into usable or actionable knowledge (Mandinach Honey, 2005). Taken as a whole, the emerging research in this area suggests that what is needed is a comprehensive and purposeful approach to the use of data that not only informs the practices of individual teachers, but is supported as an essential and strategic part of school-wide improvement strategies. New professional development programs are now training teachers and school leaders in how to make use of data in systematic and rigorous ways to continuously improve student performance. For example, TERC has created Using Data, a professional development model that introduces teachers to a process through which they learn to frame questions, collect data, formulate hypotheses, draw conclusions, take action, and monitor results (Love, 2002). Preliminary studies have indicated that this model has had an impact on teacher classroom behavior and on their approach to data analysis and interpretation (Love, 2004), and has also improved student learning as indicated by state and formative assessments (Zuman, 2005). Results from external evaluations of the intervention conducted in various locations have shown substantial gains in student performance on state accountability measures in the areas of math and language arts. Technology has a vital role to play in enabling data-driven decision-making. Web-based test data reporting systems provide an interface to the state and city testing results by organizing raw data into information that is aligned with state standards and mobile computing devices, such as handhelds, provide teachers with a platform to administer and analyze the data of classroom-based assessments. For example, according to the 2004 Quality Education Data, 55 percent of the nations public school districts used PDAs or handheld PCs in the 2002-2003 school year with an additional 8 percent expected to purchase them for use during the 2003-2004 school year. The numbers released by Wireless Generation, a for-profit company that designs educational assessment applications for handheld devices, suggests an even greater increase. During the fall of 2005, Wireless estimates that roughly 80,000 teachers, working in 48 states will be using their software to collect and analyze data for up to one million students in pre-K through sixth grade. The company currently has contracts with ten Reading First states, as well as with some of the largest school districts in the nation, including the New York City Board of Education and Chicago Public Schools. While using PDAs to administer assessments and view data are becoming increasingly popular, few studies have examined the effect they have on teacher practice and student achievement (Brunner ; Honey, 2001; Hupert, Martin, Heinze, Kanaya, ; Perez, 2004; Sharp ; Risko, 2003; Sharp, 2004). Studies that have begun to examine this trend suggest that that these tools assist teachers in thinking more substantively about students progress. As a whole, the research indicates that the single most powerful affordance of the technology is its ability to support teachers in using assessments to acquire information about students thinking and learning, and to use the understanding gained to further shape their instructional practice (Brunner ; Honey, 2001; Hupert et al. , 2004; Sharp ; Risko, 2003). Such a strategy places assessment squarely in the center of the classroom where it can potentially count the most. Back To Top The Complex Nature of Change Another factor influencing the impact of technology on student achievement is that changes in classroom technologies correlate to changes in other educational factors as well. Originally the determination of student achievement was based on traditional methods of social scientific investigation: it asked whether there was a specific, causal relationship between one thing—technology—and another—student achievement. Because schools are complex social environments, however, it is impossible to change just one thing at a time (Glennan ; Melmed, 1996; Hawkins, Panush, ; Spielvogel, 1996; Newman, 1990). If a new technology is introduced into a classroom, other things also change. For example, teachers perceptions of their students capabilities can shift dramatically when technology is integrated into the classroom (Honey, Chang, Light, Moeller, in press). Also, teachers frequently find themselves acting more as coaches and less as lecturers (Henriquez ; Riconscente, 1998). Another example is that use of technology tends to foster collaboration among students, which in turn may have a positive effect on student achievement (Tinzmann, 1998). Because the technology becomes part of a complex network of changes, its impact cannot be reduced to a simple cause-and-effect model that would provide a definitive answer to how it has improved student achievement. Back To Top IMPLICATIONS These findings have implications for every district and school using or planning to use technology. Research on successfully developing, evaluating, studying, and implementing a wide range of technology-based educational programs suggests that the value of technology for students will not be realized unless attention is paid to several important considerations that support the effective use of technology (ISTE, 2002; Byrom ; Bingham, 2001; Chang, Henriquez, Honey, Light, Moeller, ; Ross, 1998; Cradler, 1997; Frederiksen ; White, 1997; Hawkins, Panush, ; Spielvogel, 1996; Honey, McMillan, Tsikalas, ; Light, 1996; National Foundation for the Improvement of Education, 1996; Pea ; Gomez, 1992). These considerations are: Specific educational goals and a vision of learning through technology Ongoing professional development Structural changes in the school day A robust technical infrastructure and technical support Ongoing evaluation Back To Top 1. Educational Goals and a Vision of Learning Through Technology Before technology is purchased or teachers participate in their first professional development session, the educational goals for students should be determined. What do students need to learn, and how can technology promote those learning goals? To answer these questions, the school can convene a technology planning team comprising administrators, teachers, other instructional staff, technology coordinators, students, parents, and representatives of the community. This team first develops a clear set of goals, expectations, and criteria for student learning based on national and state standards, the student population, and community concerns. Next, it determines the types of technology that will best support efforts to meet those goals. The viewpoints of parents and community members are helpful in presenting a broader perspective of skills that students need to succeed after school. In fact, communitywide involvement in determining the schools technology goals benefits the entire educational process (Byrom Bingham, 2001; Panel on Educational Technology, 1997). Rather than using technology for technologys sake, the planning team ensures that particular educational objectives are achieved more efficiently, in more depth, or with more flexibility through technology. Cuban (cited in Trotter, 1998) states, The obligation is for educators, practitioners, and educational policymakers to think about what they are after. Only with clear goals can educators be intelligent about how much they want to spend for what purpose and under what conditions. If there is a clear understanding of the purpose of and type of technology used, evaluating the impact is easier and more valuable. According to Hawkins, Panush, and Spielvogel (1996) and Byrom ; Bingham (2001), school districts that successfully integrate technology show a clear and meaningful connection between technology and larger educational goals. Next, the planning team develops a vision of how technology can improve teaching and learning. Without a vision, lasting school improvement is almost impossible (Byrom ; Bingham, 2001). Team members come to consensus in answering the question How Will You Use Technology to Support Your Vision of Learning? Essential to this vision is an emphasis on meaningful, engaged learning with technology, in which students are actively involved in the learning process. Educational technology is less effective when the learning objectives are unclear and the focus of the technology use is diffuse (Schacter, 1999). The schools vision of learning through technology also emphasizes the importance of all students having equitable access and use of technology—females, special-needs students, minority students, disadvantaged students, students at risk of educational failure, rural and inner-city students. All students need opportunities to use technology in meaningful, authentic tasks that develop higher-order thinking skills. (For further information, refer to the Critical Issue Ensuring Equitable Use of Education Technology. ) Back To Top 2. Professional Development After the educational goals and vision of learning through technology have been determined, it is important to provide professional development to teachers to help them choose the most appropriate technologies and instructional strategies to meet these goals. Students cannot be expected to benefit from technology if their teachers are neither familiar nor comfortable with it. Teachers need to be supported in their efforts to use technology. The primary reason teachers do not use technology in their classrooms is a lack of experience with the technology (Wenglinsky, 1998; Rosen Weil, 1995). Wenglinsky (cited in Archer, 1998) found that teachers who had received professional development with computers during the last five years were more likely to use computers in effective ways than those who had not participated in such training. Yet teacher induction programs too often focus narrowly on helping new teachers survive the initial year (Fulton, Yoon, Lee, 2005). Ongoing professional development is necessary to help teachers learn not only how to use new technology but also how to provide meaningful instruction and activities using technology in the classroom (Ringstaff Kelley, 2002). Teachers must be offered training in using computers, notes Sulla (1999), but their training must go beyond that to the instructional strategies needed to infuse technological skills into the learning process. In successful projects, teachers are provided with ongoing professional development on practical applications of technology. Teachers cannot be expected to learn how to use educational technology in their teaching after a one-time workshop. Teachers need in-depth, sustained assistance not only in the use of the technology but in their efforts to integrate technology into the curriculum (Kanaya Light, 2005). Teachers also need embedded opportunities for professional learning and collaborating with colleagues in order to overcome the barrier of time and teachers daily schedules (The National Council of Staff Development, 2001; Kanaya ; Light, 2005). Skills training becomes peripheral to alternative forms of ongoing support that addresses a range of issues, including teachers changing practices and curricula, new technologies and other new resources, and changing assessment practices. This time spent ensuring that teachers are using technology to enrich their students learning experiences is an important piece in determining the value of technology to their students. According to Soloway (cited in Archer, 1998), teachers always have been the key to determining the impact of innovations, and this situation also is true of technology. Besides pedagogical support to help students use technology to reach learning goals, teachers also need time to become familiar with available products, software, and online resources. They also need time to discuss technology use with other teachers. Transforming schools into 21st century learning communities means recognizing that teachers must become members of a growing network of shared expertise (Fulton, Yoon, Lee, 2005). Professional collaboration includes communicating with educators in similar situations and others who have experience with technology (Panel on Educational Technology, 1997). This activity can be done in face-to-face meetings or by using technology such as e-mail or videoconferencing. The effects of introducing technology on teacher professionalization include increased collaboration among teachers within a school and increased interaction with external collaborators and resources. Back To Top 3. Structural Changes in the School Day It is important to build time into the daily schedule allowing teachers time to collaborate and to work with their students. Engaged learning through technology is best supported by changes in the structure of the school day, including longer class periods and more allowance for team teaching and interdisciplinary work. For example, when students are working on long-term research projects for which they are making use of online resources (such as artwork, scientific data sets, or historical documents), they may need more than a daily 30- or 40-minute period to find, explore, and synthesize these materials for their research. As schools continue to acquire more technology for student use and as teachers are able to find more ways to incorporate technology into their instruction, the problem will no longer be not enough computers but not enough time (Becker, 1994). Back To Top 4. Technical Infrastructure and Support Increased use of technology in the school requires a robust technical infrastructure and adequate technical support. If teachers are working with a technology infrastructure that realistically cannot support the work they are trying to do, they will become frustrated. School districts have a responsibility to create not only nominal access to computers and electronic networks but access that is robust enough to support the kinds of use that can make a real difference in the classroom. Teachers also must have access to on-site technical support personnel who are responsible for troubleshooting and assistance after the technology and lessons are in place. Back To Top 5. Evaluation Ongoing evaluation of technology applications and student achievement, based on the overall educational goals that were decided on, helps to ensure that he technology is appropriate, adaptable, and useful. Such evaluation also facilitates change if learning goals are not being met. Administrators can acknowledge and recognize incremental improvements in student outcomes as well as changes in teachers curricula and practices. Gradual progress, rather than sudden transformation, is more likely to result in long-term change. Baker (1999) emphasizes that besides being a means to collect, interpret, and document findings, evaluation is a planning tool that should be considered at the beginning of any technology innovation. She adds that the overall focus of evaluation is student learning. Heinecke, Blasi, Milman, and Washington (1999) note that multiple quantitative and qualitative evaluation measures may be necessary to document student learning outcomes. To ensure that evaluation procedures are adequately designed and carried out, administrators and teachers may wish to consult evaluation sources such as An Educators Guide to Evaluating the Use of Technology in Schools and Classrooms. All of these issues are important in using technology to improve student achievement. Educational technology is not, and never will be, transformative on its own. But when decisions are made strategically with these factors in mind, technology can play a critical role in creating new circumstances and opportunities for learning that can be rich and exciting. At its best, technology can facilitate deep exploration and integration of information, high-level thinking, and profound engagement by allowing students to design, explore, experiment, access information, and model complex phenomena, note Goldman, Cole, and Syer (1999). These new circumstances and opportunities—not the technology on its own—can have a direct and meaningful impact on student achievement. When educators use the accumulating knowledge regarding the circumstances under which technology supports the broad definition of student achievement, they will be able to make informed choices about what technologies will best meet the particular needs of specific schools or districts. They also will be able to ensure that teachers, parents, students, and community members nderstand what role technology is playing in a school or district and how its impact is being evaluated. Finally, they will be able to justify the investments made in technology. To help states, school districts, and school personnel plan ways to measure the impact that technology is having on classroom practices and academic achievement, Dirr (2004) in partnership with the Appalachian Technology in Education Consortium and the Mid-Atlantic Regional Technology in Edu cation Consortium, identified the following evaluation strategies: Encourage SEAs and LEAs to set aside 10 percent to 15 percent of funds to evaluate their technology grants. Provide a model comprehensive plan for states and districts to consider as they design their own evaluation plans to include a statement of purpose, identifies clear objectives, demonstrates valid approaches to research design, and specifies appropriate time frames for analysis and reporting. Support efforts to develop shared instruments and sets of common data elements. Develop a database of best practices for technology programs and applications that have shown to support student achievement in scientifically based research studies. Develop a list of highly qualified researchers and evaluators from whom SEAs and LEAs can obtain guidance. Explore the development of validated instruments that could be shared across states. Back To Top ACTION OPTIONS: Administrators, the technology planning team, and teachers can take the following steps to improve student achievement through technology. Administrators and the Planning Team (comprising teacher representatives, technology coordinator, students, parents, and interested community members): Review a range of national and state educational standards for student learning (such as those listed in Developing Educational Standards). Seek out content standards that articulate the goals for students to achieve. Determine key aspects of national and state student learning standards for the school or district to focus on as educational goals. Involve teachers in this process to ensure that their expertise and opinions are considered. Charge cross-disciplinary groups of teachers and technology coordinators with finding new ways that technology can help students to achieve those learning goals. Collaborate to create a technology plan for the school. (Refer to the Critical Issue Developing a School or District Technology Plan. ) Set one-, three-, and five-year goals for improving student learning through technology. Identify specific curricula, practices, skills, attitudes, and policies that can be enhanced through the use of technology to foster significant improvement in the character and quality of student learning. For example, if the district is interested in improving students writing performance, word processing with an emphasis on revision and editing should become a salient part of the curriculum across disciplines. ) Identify classrooms in the district where students are already producing exemplary work using technology; or visit virtual classrooms by viewing CD-ROMs (such as the Captured Wisdom CD-ROM Lib rary produced by the North Central Regional Technology in Education Consortium), videotapes of echnology use in schools (such as the Learning With Technology videotapes), or Internet sites relating to technology integration in content areas (such as lessons using the Amazing Picture Machine and the Handbook of Engaged Learning Projects). Build a database or other resource that allows the school to share these best practices with school staff and the community in general. Be aware of state technology plans, district technology plans, and related policies. Ensure that the school is in compliance. Become familiar with factors that affect the effective use of technology for teaching and learning. Learn about research studies conducted in real school settings that describe how technology use is influenced by teachers experience with technology, adequacy of release time, professional development opportunities, and length of class periods. Ensure that teachers are aware of the value of technology for all students, especially those considered at risk of educational failure. (Refer to the Critical Issue Using Technology to Enhance Engaged Learning for At-Risk Students. ) Ensure that all students have equitable access to effective uses of technology. Develop strategies for addressing access inequities, strategies for addressing type-of-use inequities, and strategies for addressing curriculum inequities. Provide ongoing, extensive, and research-based professional development opportunities and technical support to help teachers use technology to develop meaningful instructional strategies for students. (Refer to the Critical Issues Realizing New Learning for All Students Through Professional Development and Finding Time for Professional Development. ) Ensure that new, research-based approaches to professional development are consistent with the National Staff Development Council (NSDC) standards for staff development. Provide incentives, structures, and time for teachers to participate in highly effective staff development (such as study groups and action research) to help them integrate technology into their teaching and learning. Find ways to make app ropriate structural changes in the school day and class scheduling to support engaged learning with technology. Consider block scheduling as a possibility. Educate parents about new assessment methods that enable teachers and administrators to make judgments about the effectiveness of technology in supporting student learning. Use appropriate evaluation procedures and tools to determine the impact of technology use on student achievement based on the learning goals that were set. Consult evaluation sources such as An Educators Guide to Evaluating the Use of Technology in Schools and Classrooms. Share findings with the community. Teachers: Determine the purpose of using technology in the classroom, as determined by the specified educational goals. Is it used to support inquiry, enhance communication, extend access to resources, guide students to analyze and visualize data, enable product development, or encourage expression of ideas? After the purpose is determined, select the appropriate technology and develop the curricula. Create a plan for evaluating students work and assessing the impact of the technology. Coordinate technology implementation efforts with core learning goals, such as improving students writing skills, reading comprehension, mathematical reasoning, and problem-solving skills. Collaborate with colleagues to design curricula that involve students in meaningful learning activities in which technology is used for research, data analysis, synthesis, and communication. Promote the use of learning circles, which offer opportunities for students to exchange ideas with other students, teachers, and professionals across the world. Encourage students to broaden their horizons with technology by means of global connections, electronic visualization, electronic field trips, and online research and publishing. Ensure that students have equitable access to various technologies (such as presentation software, video production, Web page production, word processing, modeling software, and desktop publishing software) to produce projects that demonstrate what they have learned in particular areas of the curriculum. Encourage students to collaborate on projects and to use peer assessment to critique each others work. In addition to standardized tests, use alternative assessment strategies that are based on students performance of authentic tasks. One strategy is to help students develop electronic portfolios of their work to be used for assessment purposes. Ensure that technology-rich student products can be evaluated directly in relation to the goals for student outcomes, rather than according to students level of skill with the technology. Create opportunities for students to share their work publiclythrough performances, public service, open houses, science fairs, and videos. Use these occasions to inform parents and community members of the kinds of learning outcomes the school is providing for students. Learn how various technologies are used today in the world of work, and help students see the value of technology applications. (Pertinent online information can be found in the 1998-99 Occupational Outlook Handbook and the Bureau of Labor Statistics Career Information. ) Participate in professional development activities to gain experience with various types of educational technology and learn how to integrate this technology into the curriculum. Use technology (such as an e-mail list) to connect with other teachers outside the school or district and compare successful strategies for teaching with technology.